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History > UK, British empire, England

 

Early 21st century, 20th century

 

UK, British empire, Ottoman empire

 

    1920-1948 > British mandate in Palestine

 

1947 > Partition

 

 

 

 

Jewish immigrants,

arriving in Haifa aboard a refugee ship,

waving future flag of the state of Israel

shortly before its official conception.

 

Location: Haifa, Palestine

 

Date taken: 1948

 

Photograph: Dmitri Kessel

 

Life Images

http://images.google.com/hosted/life/ef6d5afdabd34947.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Arab refugees

crowding a British ship carrying them to Acre.

 

Location: Israel

 

Date taken: May 1948

 

Photograph: John Phillips

 

Life Images

http://images.google.com/hosted/life/0a39e26a13d81506.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Palestinian refugees from a village near Haifa

making their way to Arab lines

near Tulkarm, June 1948.

 

Photograph: Bettmann/Bettmann Archive

 

'Stubbornly fighting for life':

how Arthur Koestler reported the birth of Israel

G

Wed 9 May 2018    06.00 BST

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/may/09/
stubbornly-fighting-for-life-how-arthur-koestler-reported-the-birth-of-israel

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Israeli soldiers in southern Israel in 1948.

 

Credit: Agence France-Presse — Getty Images

 

1948

How the events of that fateful year

shaped the Israeli-Palestinian conflict for decades to come

NYT

Nov. 3, 2023    6:00 a.m. ET

https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/03/
podcasts/the-daily/israel-palestine-1948.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tantura massacre

 

Palestinian survivors

and historians

have long claimed

that men living in Tantura,

a fishing village

of approximately

1,500 people near Haifa,

were executed

after surrendering

to the Alexandroni Brigade

and their bodies

dumped in a mass grave

believed to be located

under an area that is now

a car park for Dor Beach.

 

Estimates have ranged

from 40 to 200 people.

 

In recent years,

a growing body of evidence

for the Tantura massacre

has generated

significant controversy in Israel,

where atrocities committed

by Jewish forces in 1948

remain a highly sensitive

subject:

 

an Israeli-made documentary

about what happened

in the village

faced widespread backlash

on its release last year.

 

The extensive new investigation

by the research agency

Forensic Architecture identifies

what it says

is a second mass grave site

in the former village of Tantura,

as well as two more

possible locations,

in the most comprehensive

research yet.

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/25/
study-1948-israeli-massacre-tantura-palestinian-village-mass-graves-car-park

 

 

https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/03/
podcasts/the-daily/israel-palestine-1948.html - NYT podcast

 

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/25/
study-
1948-israeli-massacre-tantura-palestinian-village-mass-graves-car-park

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1948

 

End of the British mandate

 

al-Nakba (”the Catastrophe”)  /  النكبة

 

 

In the course

of Israel's creation in 1948

and its occupation

of the West Bank and Gaza

in 1967,

more than half the Arabs

of pre-1948 Palestine

are thought

to have been displaced.

 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-11104284

 

 

 

Quand, en 1947,

l’Empire britannique

décide de se débarrasser

de la Palestine mandataire

(qu’il administre depuis 1920)

et de confier le dossier

aux Nations unies,

650 000 juifs sont établis

en Palestine ;

 

les Palestiniens arabes

représentent

autour de 1,2 million

à 1,4 million de personnes.

 

En novembre,

l’Assemblée générale de l’ONU

vote la partition du territoire

en deux Etats indépendants :

 

l’un, juif,

s’étendant sur près

de 55 % du territoire ;

 

l’autre arabe,

sur près de 40 % des terres

– Jérusalem bénéficiant

d’un statut

de « ville internationale ».

 

Si les dirigeants sionistes

accueillent favorablement

la partition,

les élites palestiniennes

et les gouvernements arabes

la rejettent.

 

Après plusieurs mois de combats

dont les deux camps

se rejettent la responsabilité

et de déplacements de populations,

la déclaration

d’indépendance israélienne,

le 14 mai 1948,

provoque l’intervention directe

des armées des pays arabes voisins

pour tuer dans l’œuf le nouvel Etat.

 

Elles sont repoussées

puis vaincus [ vaincues ].

 

De novembre 1947

à l’issue [ de ] la guerre,

en juin 1949,

jusqu’à 750 000 Palestiniens

quittent, fuyant ou expulsés,

les territoires

sous contrôle israélien,

leurs biens sont saisis

 

Seuls 150 000 restent établis

dans le nouvel Etat.

 https://www.lemonde.fr/les-decodeurs/article/2018/05/15/
la-nakba-palestinienne-un-enjeu-politique-et-une-bataille-memorielle
_4636240_4355770.html

 

 

https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2024/02/01/
magazine/israel-founding-palestinian-conflict.html

 

https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/03/
podcasts/the-daily/israel-palestine-1948.html - NYT podcast

 

http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2018/05/15/
il-y-a-soixante-dix-ans-l-invention-de-la-nakba
_5298947_3218.html

 

https://blogs.mediapart.fr/ray-elsa/blog/251016/
memoires-de-la-nakba

 

https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2016/oct/28/
british-evacuation-palestine-1948-photograph

 

https://www.lemonde.fr/les-decodeurs/article/2018/05/15/
la-nakba-palestinienne-un-enjeu-politique-et-une-bataille-memorielle
_4636240_4355770.html

 

http://www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2014/may/02/
arab-villages-lost-israel-war-independence-interactive

 

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/02/
nakba-israel-palestine-zochrot-history

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/
newsid_1900000/newsid_1909200/1909217.stm

 

http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/may/14/
palestinians-nakba-day-right-return

 

http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/may/19/
nakba-day-palestinian-summer

 

https://www.theguardian.com/world/gallery/2011/may/15/
palestinian-territories-israel

 

 https://www.bbc.com/news/
world-middle-east-11104284 - 2 September 2010

 

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jul/22/israel-
remove-nakba-from-textbooks

 

http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/18/
opinion/18khoury.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

History of Israel > Timeline > 1948-2008

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7385661.stm

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/middle_east/2008/israel_at_60/
default.stm

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7375994.stm

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7380642.stm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1967

 

U.N Security Council Resolution 242

 

 

Nearly six months

after the Six-Day War in 1967

-- a spectacular military

victory for Israel in which

it doubled

the size of the territory

under its control,

occupying the Sinai peninsula,

Gaza Strip, West Bank,

and Golan Heights --

the U.N. Security Council

issued Resolution 242.

 

The resolution stated

that in order for peace

to be achieved in the region,

Israel would have to withdraw

"from territories occupied

in the recent conflict."

 

Over the next 35 years,

peace negotiations between

Israelis and Palestinians

would focus

on achieving a return

to the pre-1967 borders.

(Yale Law School Avalon Project)

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/oslo/etc/historic.html - broken link

 

 

 

The most important

of the security council's

resolutions.

 

Issued after the 1967 war,

when Israel captured

the Sinai peninsula from Egypt,

the Golan Heights from Syria

and the West Bank from Jordan,

it calls for the withdrawal

of Israeli armed forces

from the recently occupied

territories

and a "just settlement

of the refugee problem".

 

Its language is ambiguous.

 

It does not set out

what a "just" solution

for the Palestinian refugees

would entail

and there are disputes

over its translation,

but resolution 242

remains the basis

for most peace plans.

 

It also speaks of the necessity

for "sovereignty,

territorial integrity

and political independence

of every state in the area

and their right to live in peace

within secure and recognised

boundaries."

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/oct/22/
israel2

 

 

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/
oslo/etc/historic.html

 

 

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/may/26/
israel-resolution-242

 

https://www.npr.org/transcripts/16553071 - November 22, 2007

 

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/oct/22/
israel2

 

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/13/
comment.paulfoot

 

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/mar/31/
israel3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1967

 

six-day war

 

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/30/
israel-six-day-war-film-censored-voices

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

May 14, 1948

 

Israel Declares Independence

 

 

On May 14, 1948,

the independent state of Israel

is proclaimed

as British rule in Palestine

comes to an end.

(add source / URL)

 

 



Amid unremitting conflict

between Arabs and Jews

following the announcement

of the U.N. partition plan,

the State of Israel

declared its independence.

 

"The Nazi holocaust,

which engulfed

millions of Jews

in Europe,"

the proclamation read,

"proved anew the urgency

of the re-establishment

of the Jewish state.

 

... It is, moreover,

the self-evident right

of the Jewish people

to be a nation,

as all other nations,

in its own sovereign State."

(Yale Law School Avalon Project)

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/oslo/etc/historic.html

 

 

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/
oslo/etc/historic.html

 

 

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/02/
massacre-marred-birth-israel-independence

 

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/24/
books/review/my-promised-land-by-ari-shavit.html

 

http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/14/
may-14-1948-israel-declares-independence/

 

 

 

 

https://www.nytimes.com/1960/12/16/
archives/3-12hour-film-based-on-uris-novel-opens.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1948

 

Israel's war of independence

 

http://www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2014/may/02/
arab-villages-lost-israel-war-independence-interactive

 

https://www.nytimes.com/1960/12/16/
archives/3-12hour-film-based-on-uris-novel-opens.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1948

 

End of the British mandate

 

 

growing knowledge

of the Holocaust

— the Nazi genocide

of roughly six million Jews —

added still more urgency

to the Jewish cause

for a national homeland.

 

In 1942,

leading Zionists

met in New York

to formulate plans

for a Jewish state.

 

And by 1944,

Jewish guerilla groups

had broken their truce

with British authorities

and resumed bombings

and other terror attacks,

culminating

in the assassination

in Cairo of Lord Moyne,

British Secretary of State

in the Middle East.

 

Meanwhile,

the ethno-nationalist

plans of Arabs

were developing apace.

 

In 1944-45

seven Arab states

and one Palestinian representative

agreed to the Alexandria Protocol

and formed the Arab League,

forming a unified opposition

both to further development

of a Jewish homeland

in British Palestine

and to intervention

of foreign powers in the area.

 

Rapid change

and open warfare

followed World War II.

 

The United States

put increasing pressure

on the British

to allow Jewish refugees

into Palestine,

but the British refused,

acceding to Arab demands.

 

Soon after, in 1947,

Britain passed

the Mandate over Palestine

to the United Nations,

which proposed

a partition plan

allocating roughly

44 percent of the area

for an Arab state

and 56 percent

for a Jewish state,

with Jerusalem

under international administration.

 

The U.N. General Assembly

accepted the plan,

as did the Jews.

 

But the Arabs did not,

and the plan

was never implemented.

 

Tensions over the potential

for a Jewish state

ran at their highest,

and in late 1947,

irregular Palestinian fighting units

and underground Jewish groups

carried out increasingly direct,

militaristic attacks,

including

a Palestinian siege of Jerusalem.

 

The conflict came to a head

when, in May of 1948,

a Jewish state of Israel

was declared,

Britain withdrew its forces,

and Arab armies

from five neighboring countries

invaded.

 

The 1948 War

(known to Israelis

as the War of Independence)

proceeded haltingly

until Israelis,

aided by clandestine

arms shipments,

repelled the Arab forces

and broke the blockade

of Jerusalem.

 

The fighting

created a wave

of Palestinian refugees,

numbering between

500,000 and 800,000,

and came to be known

as al-Nakba

(”the Catastrophe”)

to Palestinians.

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/
suicide-bombers/timeline-the-israeli-palestinian-conflict/1914-1949/2770/
- broken URL

 

 

 

Palestine

- comprising what are now

Israel,

the West Bank,

Gaza Strip

and Jordan -

was among several former

Ottoman Arab territories

placed

under the administration

of Great Britain

by the League of Nations.

 

The mandate lasted

from 1920 to 1948.

 

In 1923 Britain granted

limited autonomy

to Transjordan,

now known as Jordan.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/v3_israel_palestinians/maps/html/british_control.stm

 

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/
03/v3_israel_palestinians/maps/html/british_control.stm

 

 

https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2023/oct/23/
how-a-contested-history-feeds-the-israel-palestine-conflict-podcast

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Young people in Tel Aviv celebrate on 29 November 1947,

the day the UN voted to allow the creation of a Jewish state.

 

Photograph: AFP/Getty Images

 

'Stubbornly fighting for life':

how Arthur Koestler reported the birth of Israel

G

Wed 9 May 2018    06.00 BST

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/may/09/
stubbornly-fighting-for-life-how-arthur-koestler-reported-the-birth-of-israel

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

November 29, 1947

 

Partition of Palestine

 

U.N. Partitions Palestine,

Allowing for Creation of Israel

 

 

On Nov. 29, 1947,

the United Nations General

Assembly

passed a resolution calling

for Palestine to be partitioned

between Arabs and Jews,

allowing for the formation

of the Jewish state of Israel.

 

Since 1917,

Palestine had been

under the control of Britain,

which supported

the creation of a Jewish state

in the holy land.

 

Sympathy

for the Jewish cause

grew during the genocide

of European Jews

during the Holocaust.

 

In 1946,

the Palestine issue

was brought

before the newly created

United Nations,

which drafted a partition plan.

 

The plan,

which organized Palestine

into three Jewish sections,

four Arab sections

and the internationally-administered

city of Jerusalem,

had strong support

in Western nations

as well as the Soviet Union.

 

It was opposed

by Arab nations.

 

The General Assembly

voted, 33-13,

in favor of partition,

with 10 members,

including Britain,

abstaining.

 

The six Arab nations

in the General Assembly

staged a walkout in protest.

 

The New York Times

reported:

 

“The walkout

of the Arab delegates

was taken as a clear indication

that the Palestinian Arabs

would have nothing to do

with the Assembly’s decision.

 

The British have

emphasized repeatedly

that British troops

could not be used

to impose a settlement

not acceptable

to both Jews and Arabs,

and the partition plan

does not provide

outside military force

to keep order.

 

Instead, it provides for

the establishment

of armed militia

by the two nascent states

to keep internal order.”

https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/11/29/
nov-29-1947-united-nations-partitions-palestine-allowing-for-creation-of-israel/

 

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7380642.stm

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/
english/static/in_depth/world/2001/israel_and_palestinians/key_maps/6.stm

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/world/2001/
israel_and_palestinians/timeline/1947.stm

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
in_depth/middle_east/israel_and_the_palestinians/key_documents/1681322.stm

 

https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2023/oct/23/
how-a-contested-history-feeds-the-israel-palestine-conflict-podcast

 

https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/11/29/
nov-29-1947-united-nations-partitions-palestine-allowing-for-creation-of-israel/

 

 

 

 

https://www.nytimes.com/1960/12/16/
archives/3-12hour-film-based-on-uris-novel-opens.html

 

 

 

 

 

https://www.theguardian.com/century/1940-1949/
Story/0,6051,105143,00.html  

 

https://www.theguardian.com/century/
year/0,6050,128354,00.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

November 29, 1947

 

Partition of Palestine

 

Map

 

United Nations

General Assembly Resolution 181

 

 

The United Nations

General Assembly

decided in 1947

on the partition of Palestine

into Jewish and Arab states,

with Jerusalem to be

an internationalised city.

 

Jewish representatives

in Palestine

accepted the plan tactically

because it implied

international recognition

for their aims.

 

Some Jewish leaders,

such as David Ben Gurion,

the first Israeli prime minister,

opposed the plan

because their ambition

was a Jewish state

on the entire territory

of Mandate Palestine.

 

The Palestinians and Arabs

felt that it was a deep injustice

to ignore the rights of the majority

of the population of Palestine.

 

The Arab League

and Palestinian institutions

rejected the partition plan,

and formed volunteer armies

that infiltrated into Palestine

beginning in December of 1947.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/middle_east/israel_and_the_palestinians/
key_documents/1681322.stm

 

 

 

 

Britain, unable to resolve

the differences between

the Arabs and Jews

and with its mandate in tatters,

referred

the Palestinian problem

to the United Nations

in February 1947.

 

The U.N. Special Committee

on Palestine issued its report

and recommendations

in August 1947,

and the General Assembly

endorsed the plan

in November 1947

by a vote of 33 to 13.

 

(The U.S. and Soviet Union,

in rare agreement,

voted for the resolution;

Britain did not.)

 

The resolution called

for the partition of Palestine

and the establishment

of separate

Jewish and Arab states,

with Jerusalem under

international control.

 

The Jewish leadership

ultimately accepted

Resolution 181;

 

Arabs rejected it.

 

It was never implemented.

(Yale Law School Avalon Project)

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/oslo/etc/historic.html

 

 

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/
middle_east/israel_and_the_palestinians/key_documents/1681322.stm

 

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/
oslo/etc/historic.html

 

 

https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2023/oct/23/
how-a-contested-history-feeds-the-israel-palestine-conflict-podcast

 

https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/11/29/
nov-29-1947-united-nations-partitions-palestine-allowing-for-creation-of-israel/
 

 

https://mondediplo.com/maps/middleeast1949

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

'Mandate Palestine'

 

British mandate

 

 

Bombing

of the King David Hotel

in Jerusalem,

the headquarters of British rule

 

 

On July 22, 1946,

seven milk churns

containing concealed bombs

exploded in the basement

of the King David Hotel

in Jerusalem.

 

Six floors

of British government

and military offices collapsed,

and 92 people were killed,

most of them Arab, British

and Jewish civilians.

 

What was at the time

the most lethal

terrorist attack in history

was perpetrated

by the Irgun Zvai Leumi

(Hebrew

for National Military Organization)

headed by Menachem Begin,

a future prime minister of Israel.

 

The organization’s main aim

was to force the British

out of Palestine,

which they had ruled since 1917.

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/01/books/review/anonymous-soldiers-by-bruce-hoffman.html

 

 

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/01/
books/review/anonymous-soldiers-by-bruce-hoffman.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Adolf Hitler

talking to Haj Amin al-Husseini,

the grand mufti of Jerusalem.

 

The mufti helped instigate Arab pogroms

against Jews in the holy land in the 1920s

and collaborated with the Nazis.

 

Photograph: Keystone/Getty Images

Anglonautes' note: check history of this picture.

 

Netanyahu Draws Broad Criticism

After Saying a Palestinian Inspired Holocaust

NYT

OCT. 21, 2015

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/22/world/middleeast/
netanyahu-saying-palestinian-mufti-inspired-holocaust-draws-broad-criticism.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Muhammad Amin al-Husayni /

Haj Amin al-Husseini    189?-1974

 

Mufti

(chief Muslim Islamic

legal religious authority)

of Jerusalem

under the political authority

of the British Mandate

in Palestine

from 1921 to 1937.

 

His primary political causes

were:

 

1) establishment

of a pan-Arab federation

or state;

 

2) opposition

to further immigration

of Jews to Palestine

and Jewish national aspirations

in Palestine;

 

3) promotion of himself

as a pan-Arab

and Muslim religious leader.

 

In exile

between 1937 and 1945,

al-Husayni,

claiming to speak

for the Arab nation

and the Muslim world,

sought an alliance

with the Axis powers

(Nazi Germany

and Fascist Italy)

based on their publicly

recognizing

 

1) the independence

of the Arab states;

 

2) the right of those states

to form a union

reflecting a dominant Muslim

and specifically Arab culture;

 

3) the right of those states

to reverse steps taken

towards the creation

of a Jewish homeland

in Palestine;

 

and 4) al-Husayni himself

as the spiritual and political

representative of this pan-Arab,

Muslim entity.

 

In exchange,

al-Husayni collaborated

with the German

and Italian governments

by broadcasting pro-Axis,

anti-British, and anti-Jewish

propaganda via radio

to the Arab world;

 

inciting violence against Jews

and the British authorities

in the Middle East;

 

and recruiting young men

of Islamic faith for service

in German military, Waffen-SS,

and auxiliary units.

 

In turn,

the Germans and the Italians

used al-Husayni

as a tool to inspire

support and collaboration

among Muslim residents

of regions under Axis control

and to incite anti-Allied violence

and rebellion among Muslims

residing beyond the reach

of German arms.

http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007665

 

 

https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/
hajj-amin-al-husayni-the-mufti-of-jerusalem

 

 

 

 

 

Palestine

 

La croix gammée et le turban

Documentaire

Allemagne, 2009, 53mn

 

 

Défenseur

de la cause panarabe

dès les années 20,

Amin al-Hussein lutte

contre l'émigration des juifs

organisée par les Britanniques

dans son pays, la Palestine.

 

Affichant

une sympathie évidente

pour les thèses nazies

dès 1937,

il s'installe à Berlin,

fréquente

les dignitaires du IIIe Reich

et s'intéresse [sic]

à la solution finale.

 

Il est également

à l'origine de la création

d'un corps d'élite musulman

destiné à combattre les Alliés,

incorporé à la Waffen SS

et composé de 12 000 hommes

recrutés en Bosnie et en Croatie.

 

À partir

de biographies récentes,

ce documentaire

revient sur la collaboration

du grand mufti avec les nazis

mais aussi, plus largement,

sur son rôle

historique et politique,

expliquant pourquoi il reste

encore aujourd'hui un héros

et un grand leader nationaliste

dans la plupart des pays

du Proche-Orient.

http://videos.arte.tv/fr/videos/la-croix-gammee-et-le-turban--7105850.html  - broken link

 

 

https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/
hajj-amin-al-husayni-the-mufti-of-jerusalem

 

 

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/22/world/middleeast/
netanyahu-saying-palestinian-mufti-inspired-holocaust-draws-broad-criticism.html

 

https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/carnet/2009-12-08-
Grand-mufti

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A British machine gun patrol in Jerusalem,

early 20th century.

 

Photograph: George Rinhart

Corbis via Getty Images

 

Dark Truths About Britain’s Imperial Past

NYT

Published March 29, 2022    Updated March 30, 2022

https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/29/
books/review/caroline-elkins-legacy-of-violence.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1920-1948

 

British control: Mandate Palestine

 

Palestine

- now Israel, the West Bank,

Gaza Strip and Jordan -

was among several former

Ottoman Arab territories

placed under

the administration

of Great Britain

by the League of Nations.

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/
v3_israel_palestinians/maps/html/british_control.stm

 

 

https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2023/oct/23/
how-a-contested-history-feeds-the-israel-palestine-conflict-podcast

 

https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/29/
books/review/caroline-elkins-legacy-of-violence.html

 

https://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/feb/03/
history.politics
 

 

http://www.theguardian.com/news/2001/jun/12/
guardianobituaries.internationaleducationnews 

 

https://www.theguardian.com/world/1937/jul/08/
israel 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1922

 

League of Nations

 

Mandate for Palestine

 

 

Following the disintegration

of the Ottoman Empire

after World War I,

the territories formerly

under the Turkish

empire's control

were divided between

France and Britain.

 

At the San Remo Conference

in April 1920,

the principal allied powers

awarded Britain

the mandate for Palestine.

 

(Britain also was awarded

the mandates

for Transjordan and Iraq;

 

France gained control

of Syria and Lebanon.)

 

In 1922,

the League of Nations

confirmed the mandate,

which specifically recognized

the historical connection

between

the Jewish people and Palestine.

 

According to the mandate,

Britain "shall be responsible

for placing the country

[Palestine]

under such political,

administrative

and economic conditions

as will secure

the establishment

of the Jewish national home ...

and also for safeguarding

the civil and religious rights

of all the inhabitants of Palestine,

irrespective of race or religion."

 

Britain was also charged

with facilitating

the immigration

of Jews to Palestine.

(Yale Law School Avalon Project)

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/oslo/etc/historic.html

 

 

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/
oslo/etc/historic.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1917

 

Arthur James Balfour
 

The Balfour Declaration

 

 

A major triumph

for the Zionist movement,

this note from

British Foreign Secretary

Arthur Balfour

to Lord Rothschild

relayed

the British government's

"declaration of sympathy"

for Jewish Zionist aspirations.

 

"His Majesty's Government

view with favour

the establishment in Palestine

of a national home

for the Jewish people,"

wrote Balfour.

 

The declaration

made clear, however,

that those who endeavored

to establish a Jewish state

should do nothing

to compromise

the civil and religious rights

of non-Jews in Palestine.

 

Some in the Arab world

considered

this public declaration

at odds with Great Britain's

previous war-time alliances

with Arab states,

a matter which preoccupied

diplomatic circles

for years afterward.

(Yale Law School Avalon Project)

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/oslo/etc/historic.html

 

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1632259.stm

 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/nov/29/
afghanistan.internationaleducationnews

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/middle_east/
israel_and_the_palestinians/key_documents/1682961.stm

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/
v3_ip_timeline/html/1917.stm

 

 

 

https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2023/oct/23/
how-a-contested-history-feeds-the-israel-palestine-conflict-podcast

 

 

 

 

https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/nov/01/
arthur-balfour-declaration-100-years-of-suffering-britain-palestine-israel

 

https://www.theguardian.com/news/2017/oct/17/
centenary-britains-calamitous-promise-balfour-declaration-israel-palestine

 

 

 

 

http://www.theguardian.com/world/on-the-middle-east/2015/dec/30/
middle-east-still-rocking-from-first-world-war-pacts-made-100-years-ago

 

 

 

 

https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/jun/28/
balfour-and-weizmann-geoffrey-lewis

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1917

 

Britain's occupation of Iraq

 

https://www.theguardian.com/news/1917/mar/11/
mainsection.fromthearchive 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Sykes-Picot agreement

was a secret understanding

concluded in 1916

between

Great Britain and France,

with the assent of Russia,

for the dismemberment

of the Ottoman Empire.

 

The agreement

was not implemented,

but it established

the principles for the division

a few years later

of the Turkish-held region

into the French

and British-administered areas

of Syria, Iraq,

Lebanon and Palestine.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/
v3_israel_palestinians/maps/html/british_control.stm

 

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/
v3_israel_palestinians/maps/html/british_control.stm

 

https://www.theguardian.com/world/on-the-middle-east/2015/dec/30/
middle-east-still-rocking-
from-first-world-war-pacts-made-100-years-ago

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Armenian children

wait to receive food from relief workers,

1920.

 

Photograph: Bettmann/Corbis

 

 Sunday Book Review

‘The Fall of the Ottomans,’ by Eugene Rogan

NYT

APRIL 16, 2015

https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/19/
books/review/19bkr-clark.t.html 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ottoman Empire’s defeat and collapse

 

In November 1914,

the world’s

only great Muslim empire

was drawn

into a life-or-death struggle

against three historically

Christian powers

— Britain, France and Russia.

 

All parties

made frantic calculations

about the likely intertwining

of religion and strategy.

 

(...)

 

As Rogan explains in

“The Fall of the Ottomans:

The Great War

in the Middle East,”

the Christian nations

of the Triple Entente

had millions

of Muslim subjects,

who might in their view

be open to seduction

by the Ottoman sultan,

especially if he seemed

to be prevailing in the war.

 

The Ottomans, for their part,

were in alliance with two other

European Christian powers,

Germany and Austria-Hungary.

 

Paradoxically, the Teutons

urged the sultan

to use his role as caliph

and proclaim

an Islamic holy war.

 

One factor was that,

as a newcomer

to the imperial game,

Germany had relatively

few Muslim subjects

and less to lose

if the card of jihad

were played.

 

The Ottomans, meanwhile,

feared the influence of foes,

especially Russia,

over their own Christian subjects

— including

the Greeks and Armenians,

who formed

a substantial and economically

important minority

in both the empire’s capital

and the Anatolian heartland.

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/19/books/review/19bkr-clark.t.html

 

 

https://www.nytimes.com/topic/subject/
ottoman-empire

 

 

https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/19/
books/review/19bkr-clark.t.html

 

 https://archive.nytimes.com/
iht-retrospective.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/04/16/
1915-turkish-sultan-may-resign/

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Theodor Herzl    1860-1904

 

Theodor Herzl,

a Hungarian-born Jew,

is considered the father

of political Zionism.

 

His 1896 pamphlet,

"The Jewish State,"

set forth the framework

for establishing

a Jewish nation.

 

"No one can deny the gravity

of the situation of the Jews,"

wrote Herzl.

 

"Wherever they live

in perceptible numbers,

they are more or less

persecuted."

 

In this essay, Herzl indicated

that there were two territories

being considered for the location

of the Jewish state

-- Palestine and Argentina.

 

"Shall we choose

Palestine or Argentine?"

asked Herzl.

 

"We shall take what is given us."

(Jewish Virtual Library)

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/oslo/etc/historic.html

 

 

 https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2013/apr/05/
antisemitic-attacks-hungary-israel

 

http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/10/
movies/it-is-no-dream-documentary-on-theodor-herzl.html

 

https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/may/03/
featuresreviews.guardianreview33

 

 https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/r/
rubinstein-herzl.html

 

 

 

 

http://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/03/
opinion/03iht-edwheat_ed3_.html

 

 

 

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/israel_at_50/history/78597.stm

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/v3_ip_timeline/html/1897.stm

 

http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/yourpaintings/paintings/theodore-herzl-191505

 

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/
oslo/etc/historic.html 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Theodor Herzl's 1896 book

Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State)

 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/v3_ip_timeline/html/
1897.stm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Related > Anglonautes > History > 19th - 20th century

 

20th century > 1939-1945

World War 2 > Germany, Europe >

Antisemitism, Adolf Hitler, Nazi era,

Holocaust / Shoah,

Samudaripen

 

 

England, United Kingdom, British Empire

 

 

UK, British Empire > 20th century > WW1 >

Timeline    1914-1918

 

 

UK, British Empire > 20th century > WW1 >

Battle of Gallipoli    1915-1916

 

 

UK, British Empire > 19th-20th centuries >

India

 

 

 

 

 

Related > Anglonautes > Vocapedia

 

Middle East > Israel, Palestine

 

 

world > foreign policy,

United Nations (U.N.),

diplomacy

 

 

religion / faith,

abuse, sexual abuse,

violence, extremism,

secularism, atheism

 

 

genocide, war,

weapons, arms sales,

espionage, torture

 

 

conflicts, wars, climate, poverty >

asylum seekers, displaced people,

migrants, refugees

worldwide

 

 

terrorism, global terrorism,

militant groups,

intelligence, spies, surveillance

 

 

 

 

 

Related

 

Juifs et musulmans - Si loin, si proches (4/4)

La guerre des mémoires, 1945-2013

Série documentaire (France, 2013, 4x52mn)

Réalisation : Karim Miské

Auteurs : Karim Miské, Emmanuel Blanchard, Nathalie Mars

Direction éditoriale : Sylvie Jézéquel

Arte

http://www.arte.tv/guide/fr/042500-000/juifs-et-musulmans-si-loin-si-proches-4-4 - broken link

http://www.arte.tv/sites/fr/juifs-musulmans/ - broken link

 

 

 

 

Let's end the myths of Britain's imperial past    2011

 

David Cameron

would have us look back

to the days of the British empire

with pride.

 

But there is little

in the brutal oppression and naked greed

with which it was built

that deserves our respect

https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/oct/19/
end-myths-britains-imperial-past 

 

 

 

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